Critical Introduction

Hey! Thanks for visiting our blog. We’re five English 101S students at the University of Maryland and have been studying rhetoric for the past two months. Our main discourse is media from the 1960’s. We attempt to see a creator’s works from multiple angles of attack and ultimately attempt to find out what an author is truly trying to say in his/her works. For this blog we are studying JFK’s 1960’s Cuban Missile Address and George W. Bush’s 9/11 Address. Both of these speeches were made after/during an imminent danger that threatened the safety of American citizens. America was in a dark time during both of these eras, but likewise it was perhaps also a time where words could really stand out and make a difference.

We chose these texts because of their innate exigence. During the 1960’s the Americas were under great tension against the USSR. The Russians were able to take over Cuba and plant their own nuclear weapons on its soil. Had their control of Cuba been allowed, it would have meant giving them the ability to launch missiles to a large part of the Americas. John F. Kennedy’s immediate response to this crisis was crucial for informing the American people, protecting the livelihoods of the Cubans, and likewise preventing an all-out nuclear war. Similarly, Bush’s speech was made soon after the terrorist attacks by Al-Qaida on America. Many lives were lost as planes were crashed into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a failed attempt on the White House. Bush had a similar duty to raise American morale and to detail a course of action to mend America and prevent such an event from happening ever again. Both of these events happened during tense times in America, both requiring leaders that had great skill in orating and were able to mediate the situation effectively.

Our blog logically goes through rhetorical arguments of these texts, starting with audience and then analyzing ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos. As we have already discussed, both texts are very timely as they are in direct response to an unpredicted and unprecedented events. This is also why we put heavy emphasis on the background and history leading up to these events, so the reader understands the weight and urgency of each situation. Because both of these men are presidents, logos is already established as they are both incredibly powerful men who have the responsibility to address and lead the nation in times of uncertainty. Because these are professionals with professionally written speeches being broadcast to hundreds of millions of people, the reader can realize that they carry great prestige and that their words should be listened to and believed. Pathos however is the strongest of their appeals as both men talk about the possibility and the tragic reality of losing lives. They both rely on values of patriotism, humanitarianism, loss and peace to rally the American people in the defense of their homeland. With our analysis of them discussing such harrowing and emotionally charged topics, the reader learns about the power of emotional persuasion prevalent in speeches that seek to stir a nation.

As you start to explore our blog and discover the elements we have highlighted in the speeches, you may take note of the all these ranging components and observe how they mesh together to build a larger, more meaningful picture of the time. Both the Cuban Missile Crisis and September 11th are still framed in American society as traumatic events. Uncertainty, doubt, and hysteria ran free and significantly impacted people’s perceptions at the time, leading us to concentrate on the pathos expressed in both speeches. Hopefully looking through this blog provided some insight on critical points in American history!

Logical Fallacies in Bush's Speech

George Bush's post 9/11 speech had many facets of persuasive writing, but also a few fallacies. Ad populum is ever present in the speech as he repeatedly cites American values in peace, prosperity, democracy and freedom in order to make a statement of how grand the country is. When stating that "freedom itself is under attack," he implies that the United States is the manifestation of Freedom. He hopes to unify all Americans by using words with positive connotations to generalize how people should feel at a time like this, as well as be supportive of their country. Boldly stating that "either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists," Bush makes a hasty generalization as well as an either or fallacy. He generalizes people and nations who do not support the United States as being in league with the terrorists, when in reality many countries may be completely isolated or uninterested in the conflict. He threatens that if a country does not support or help his own country, they will be no different than terrorists, implying military action against them. This creates a black and white rendition on the newfound war on terror, oversimplifying the complex relations and policies that many world powers partake in.

Logical Fallacies - JFK's Cuban Missile Crisis Speech

John F Kennedy's  address to the nation about the Cuban missile crisis was not a perfect speech that had a few logical fallacies.  The first logical fallacy that JFK uses is ad hominem. JFK constantly brings up the history of the Soviets and how untrustworthy they are. For example in his speech he says: "our history -- unlike that of the Soviets since the end of World War II -- demonstrates that we have no desire to dominate or conquer any other nation or impose our system upon its people." He uses their old actions to show that the rockets the soviets put in cuba are there to destroy the US but in reality,  the reason the rockets are in Cuba was for Soviet's self defense in the mutually assured distruction agreement. He attacked the Sovet's character instead of providing the real reason.  Another thing JFK does is say "Our own strategic missiles have never been transferred to the territory of any other nation under a cloak of secrecy and deception". The intresting thing is as he says that there are US rockets sitting in turkey; no worries, he did not lie. The rockets were put in Turkey without the "cloak of secrecy and deception", but everyone assumes that meant that America never put rockets outside of US terretory. A similar trick was used by Obama to get elected: he said that he would move troops out of Iraq (everyone thought the troops would be brought back to the US), instead he moved them to a diffrent country (Afghanistan). 

Stasis: Action - Winston Churchill "We Shall Fight on the Beaches"

We Shall Fight on the Beaches - Winston Churchill

Kennedy's Cuban Missile Address and Bush's 9/11 Address both called for allies to band together and fight for the "greater good". It seems the greatest, most fervent speeches are given when a nation is threatened and its way of living endangered. Winston Churchill gave his speech "We Shall Fight on the Beaches" in response to the risk of German Invasion during the early stages of World War II. Although the United Kingdom was already greatly weakened, Churchill delivered his speech to raise British morale and promised victory over the Germans at all costs. Churchill uses the stasis of action constantly throughout the speech. One of the most famous parts of his speech demonstrates his determination to win and appeals to British patriotism and strength: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." Churchill's uncompromising will immediately inspired those listening and was immediately recognized as historic. In a moment of doubt and impending defeat, it is in times like those where words may have the most profound affect. Perhaps that is why so many effective presidents are also adept orators, people that can sway millions of people and change the course of history simply with words.

Canons of Rhetoric

Through both John F. Kennedy’s and George W.Bush’s speech several canons of rhetoric are utilized. Although a lot can be said about the delivery of both speeches, the fact that the speeches are still looked at today by contemporary commentators carries a lot of weight. Stylistically, to contrast the speeches, I felt as though Kennedy appealed more in that regard by using more descriptive terminology and appealing more to a sense of exigence. Both speakers appeal greatly to pathos, and employ methods to pull at the heartstrings of the audience; in Kennedy’s case that being based on impending fear while Bush’s argument resting on the past trauma and united as a nation in a time of crisis. Both speakers establish a present an argument to stir the emotions of the audience hearing their speech, one of the five canons of rhetoric. Overall, the speeches were effective at addressing the American nation in times of need, and many noticeable similarities can be observed when granting a difference in time period.

Stasis: Value - George W. Bush 1911 Address

George W. Bush’s address to America after 1911 used the stasis of “Value” in order to sway his American audience and discredit the terrorist group Al-Qaida . The beginning of his speech expressed his condolences to the families and millions of other lives that have suffered as a result of 1911. He used the value of American Patriotism in order to rally together his audience and inspire confidence in the then shocked and shaken Americans. Disbelief, anger, and frustration were all feelings that America felt. “Why do they hate us?” the Americans asked. Bush rebuked Al Qaida: “They hate our freedoms: our freedom of religion, our freedom of speech, our freedom to vote and assemble and disagree with each other.” Some may argue that Al-Qaida is simply following their faith and is to be respected for their dedication, however Bush accuses these terrorists of being “traitors to their own faith, trying, in effect, to hijack Islam itself.” Bush used “Value” in order to paint Al-Qaida as hypocrites that have besmirched Islam and terrorists that have killed innocent people. Simultaneously, he used “Value” in order to boost American morale and to reassure the Americans that just retribution will be delivered.

Ethos though George W. Bush's speech

The event of 9-11 was critical in shaping George W. Bush’s administration; after a very close election in 2000, that went so far as to require a Supreme Court case, Bush’s status of President was already slightly shaken. The Republican platform on which Bush ran in 2000 held very isolationist values in terms of foreign affairs. He believed that the US had overextended American troops overseas and claimed that he wanted to abridge American interventionism abroad. The events of 9-11 steered the course of the administration in a very different direction than originally planned with the inception of the Patriot Act and the War in Iraq. President Bush was very much perceived as a credible source as a graduate of both Harvard and Yale University, so the reception of this speech didn’t primarily hinge on the appeal of his ethos. Yet, the manner in which he establishes ethics in his speech leave a lasting impact on the America we see today. Overall, I find that Bush ethically presented an argument to the American populous while still very much accounting for the emotionally component of the situation. He says that the American government intents to see the destruction and defeat of the global terror network, a claim that is only substantiated by his ethos. When addressing the American people he reassured them to remain calm, stay patient, and acknowledges future national challenges stemming from the terrorist attack itself. Overall Bush’s speech relates very much to exigency and the concept of kairos, in that this speech held a lot of weight to a startled national within the context of an unprecedented trauma.

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Ethos during JFK's Cuban Missile Crisis Speech

John F. Kennedy’s credibility as President of the United States is certainly a factor in how important American citizens perceive his statements to be. Listening to a speech that indicates a chance of total destruction, like the Cuban Missile Crisis speech for instance, only becomes harrowing once a trustworthy source is presenting those claims. As the 35th President of America, JFK’s speech on October 22nd, 1962 carried a lot of weight and still has an impression upon generations of Americans. His reference to intentional Soviet deception affirms his political finesse with the use of field language. JFK presents an ethical evaluation of Soviet Union’s actions, he indicates time and time again during his speech that the United States has continually held Cuba under close surveillance with clear evidence of its military buildup. The speech itself undoubtedly is influenced by John F. Kennedy’s ethos.

Stasis: Action - JFK's Cuban Missile Crisis Speech

John F. Kennedy’s speech regarding the Cuban Missile Crisis employed the use of the fourth stasis, action. The beginning of his speech conveyed a sense of urgency, a sort of imminence that threatened the peace of not just the United States, but of the world. Kennedy emphasized the danger that the Soviet Union imposed and called for action, not to bear arms towards the U.S.S.R., but rather an action towards peace and unity. Kennedy warned his listeners that inaction would lead to conflict, and eventually war. He referenced the World Wars, saying, “The 1930’s taught us a clear lesson: aggressive conduct, if allowed to go unchecked and unchallenged, ultimately leads to war.” Kennedy stressed that the U.S. would maintain a “policy…of patience and restraint,” but the Soviet Unions’ actions were unable to be ignored. Kennedy reached out to the captive people of Cuba and tried to explain that the Cuban leaders were no longer inspired by Cuban ideals. He implored them to take action if they wanted to keep their national identity, to keep their pride, and to keep the peace. He then told the citizens of the United States to be steadfast and warned, “the greatest danger of all would be to do nothing.” Kennedy used the stasis of action in his speech by conveying a sense of urgency to his audience and called for them to act in order to keep peace and order.

Logos in JFK's Cuban Missile Crisis Speech

JFK's Cuban Missile Crisis speech employed logos in order to properly convey a message to the listeners.  JFK opens first with the reiteration of his promise to have Cuba monitored, and that this monitoring was increased once there was hard proof that Russian involvement on the island was exceeding basic self-defense aid, which was the original extent of aid as promised by the USSR.  He goes on to explain how the base was constructed and what the potential US missile targets were.  Throughout the speech, JFK also goes on to explain how the actions taken by the USSR are in direct opposition with what the USSR had said that they were doing and that these were a safety hazard to the USA.  After making all of this abundantly clear, he then presented his proposals for the USSR to stop this conflict.  JFK manages in this way to explain step by step as to why the missiles are bad, why they are wrong, and then what needs to be done about them.

Audience in Bush's 9/11 Speech

Bush's address to congress was to all of America, in fact, bush even starts his article out as "Mr. Speaker, Mr. President Pro Tempore, members of Congress, and fellow Americans:. He then goes into detail about the terrorist actions and explains who al-Qaida is. Most of the higher government officials already knew this, but the American people were left in the dark up to this point. It was up to the president to carefully direct their fear of 9/11 into something else: in this case a pledge to stop world terrorists. Had no one come out and told the  American people what exactly happened there would be mass havoc. Bush was pleading  to make sure that congress let him start the war on terrorism and wanted the publics support: he succeeded and connected with his audience, and to this day we still fight terrorism all around the globe.

Audience - JFK's Cuban Missile Crisis Speech

John F Kennedy's  address to the nation about the Cuban missile crisis was not directed to the nation like most people thought. The people who saw this address can be split into three categories: the people of USA, the soviet union and the rest of the world. For the nation of United States, this meant taking the risk of informing everyone of what could be impending disaster. the average citizen already feared nuclear destruction, and this just fueled it more. In fact, many people started stocking up on food and water provisions.  They knew the capabilities of nuclear weapons and that at that time they were unstoppable. The American people were not the only ones who saw this address, so did the international community  . By saying that " Our own strategic missiles have never been transferred to the territory of any other nation under a cloak of secrecy and deception" he convinced other countries that the soviets move of putting rockets in Cuba was inching closer to what could be world destruction by nuclear war. This made the international opinion of the soviets (and thus in return communism) less appealing. Personally, I think JFK and his cabinet thought this all through and understood the video's true audience was the Soviets, they would have analyzed that their public opinion will decrease if they don't move the Rockets, and understood that if they don't move the rockets not as many countries will accept communism. Even if they kept them there, the international community would have stopped providing them in trade deals that would have hurt the soviets economical model at the time (this would be called international pressure).

Pathos of George Bush's Speech

George Bush invokes pathos in the audience by first sending a message of unity, strength and togetherness to the American people. Stating examples where "a loving and giving people who have made the grief of strangers their own" helped their fellow Americans, he sends a message that Americans treat each other like family, creating a bond between all who were affected by these attacks. His use of words and diction further suggest that the country is in mourning and is only held together by the values of love, peace and patriotism that all human beings intrinsically possess. He hopes to capture the sympathies of the world, and hopes many people will join in mourning and in vigil. Next, he describes the brutal tactics of al-Qaida, particularly describing Afghanistan where many "people have been brutalized, many are starving and many have fled." He sees a humanitarian purpose for identifying and ousting these radicals, and hopes to win support by describing the hardship and imprisonment of the peaceful people of an underdeveloped country. When answering the question of what is expected of the American people, he asks them to "live their lives and hug their children." He further emphasizes the values of love and compassion that are dear to Americans, and wants the people to persevere and give everything they are asked for the government. Sending a message of safety by claiming that "this country will define our times, not be defined by them," the president wants people to be at ease, but know that they are now in a war. He appeals to the emotion of the listener's in order for them to continue to live their lives and to be steadfast and unwavering in the face of a war.

Pathos on JFK's Missile Crisis Speech

John F Kennedy's speech on the Cuban Missile Crisis invokes the pathos of his audience in a multitude of ways. In the opening paragraph he uses concrete language by calling Cuba an "imprisoned island," and emphasizing that it has "nuclear strike capability." Further on, he describes the two types of installations and the firepower they possess, creating a feeling of dread and urgency as he outlines the range of targets. Describing nuclear weapons as "so destructive and ballistic missiles as so swift", his appeal to pathos relies on presenting the threat clearly and unmistakably, telling the American people that they should be worried and afraid of such circumstances. He uses the analogy of the 1930's teaching the United States a lesson on "aggressive conduct" in order to warn that if a power is left unchecked and appeased, (Germany) war will come. Taking the stance of being opposed to war and in favor of "patience and restraint," JFK urges the United States to remain on the moral high ground, appealing to their sense of humanity and desire for continued peace. He contrasts the United States from the Soviet Union, making the point that American's are the good guys and have a global mission of peace and prosperity. Finally, in his closing message to the Cuban people, he invokes pathos in them by offering his condolences that their country has been corrupted and subject to the interest's of a global superpower. He proclaims that he understands their plight, and appeals to their emotion. He wishes they could have the power to hold free elections, have free speech, to own land and to live in prosperity alongside their American neighbors. By stepping out of his own presidential shoes and analyzing things from the Cuban's perspective, he hopes to be seen as a brother to the people of Cuba, and gain their love and respect.

Kairos in Bush's 9/11 Speech

On September 11, 2016, terrorists destroyed the Twin Towers and damaged the Pentagon using hijacked airliners.  President George W. Bush gave a speech 9 days later addressing how he would attend to the issues at hand.  Here, his kairos is perhaps not the best.  His speech, according to our source's prologue, was "well anticipated", which is the nice way of saying that he took too long.  Considering that this was the largest terrorist attack to happen in the US, he should have responded within the day or at least within the week.  This destroys some of his kairos by being late in comparison to the event and its scale.  However, it still has kairos in that it still happened within a reasonable time period to a point that it is still incredibly effective in portraying its message.  Bush additionally places demands on the Taliban that he expects them to follow immediately.  This gives Americans an idea of what is happening in real time, and helped to give time credibility to the speech.

Kairos in JFK's Cuban Missile Crisis Speech

JFK's speech on the Cuban Missile Crisis was made to American public as soon as the government had confirmed that Cuba was receiving nuclear missiles and the resources to build launch sites from the Soviet Union.  This announcement, made in the time known as the Cold War when the USA and the USSR engaged in arms races and new covert operations, shows a lot of kairos.  Kairos is the lesser-known pillar of communication that refers to the timeliness of a writing or speech.  JFK's speech about the Cuban Missile Crisis employed kairos to add urgency and meaning to the issue.  With the Red Scare and McCarthyism having just happened, this added more tension to a time period where nuclear chaos was a real possibility in the minds of people around the globe.  JFK even references a public statement made by Russia that they were simply enabling Cuba to defend themselves, and a meeting with a foreign minister that reassured him of the same things, only to have them proven false.  JFK also explains the steps he has taken in real time to battle this issues, giving Americans to think about that were happening right as they were listening to the speech.  All of these factors help to give this speech importance through kairos.

Text 2: Bush's speech after 9-11

Link can be found here

Text 1: Cuban Missile Crisis

Link can be found here